Throughout its long history, the Ismaili Muslim community has encountered moments of triumph and glory as well as times in which the safety and security of the community was in danger.
In the Fatimid period (909-1171 C.E.), the Ismaili Imams founded cities as Caliphs of an empire spanning the Mediterranean, and left an indelible mark on the intellectual, cultural, social and religious fabric of Muslim history and world civilisation. Through the building of social governance structures, institutions of learning and wonderful architecture, ceremonial pageantry and commemoration of festivals, the Ismaili Imams stamped their mark on the Muslim, and greater world, history. In more troubling times, the community and their Imams also suffered brutal persecution. In these moments the Imams and the community needed to live under different guises, retreating at various junctures into villages and remote mountain fortresses to safeguard their very lives.
In charting the history of the IsmailisAdherents of a branch of Shi’i Islam that considers Ismail, the eldest son of the Shi’i Imam Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq (d. 765), as his successor., one will recognise that its survival, as well as its flourishing in the modern period of world history, has rested upon the dynamic leadership of its Imams and the strength and courage of special individuals. Many times, we see and hear these voices from the lips of men. In this brief article, we will turn instead to some of the wise, powerful and influential women who shaped Ismaili history. It is these women whom we honour during this Women’s History Month.
Sitt al-Mulk (d. 1023 C.E.)
During the reign of the Fatimid Imam-Caliph, al-Mu‘izz li-Din Allah (d. 975 C.E.), the Fatimid palace witnessed the birth of a baby girl, a young princess, daughter to the next Fatimid Imam-caliph al-Aziz bi’llah and his wife al-Sayyida. Born in 970 C.E., the young girl was given the title, Sitt al-Mulk, ‘Lady of the Empire’, and “was presented by the chronicles as the apple of her father’s eye, but even so, few could have then imagined the pivotal role she would play in the decades that followed.”1
Sitt al-Mulk became a renowned entrepreneur of her time. She also wielded considerable political influence at the Fatimid court. At a time when these pursuits were considered to be the forte of men, the presentation of Sitt al-Mulk’s life and legacy in the sources must be understood in that light. As well, they need to take into consideration the religious, political and economic climate during the reign of her half-brother, the Fatimid Imam-Caliph, Hakim bi Amr Allah (d. 1021 C.E.). As has been stated, “The full extent of Sitt al-Mulk’s rise to power ought to be measured against the background of the shifting balance of power amongst the fiercely rival factions who aimed to retain control of the court, along with its administrative and political institutions.”2
Sitt al-Mulk’s significant role extended to ensuring continuity of leadership during the vital moment of transition in leadership. On the death of Imam-Caliph al-Hakim, she was instrumental in securing the succession of her nephew, the Imam-Caliph al-Zahir, and acted as his regent, the de facto ruler of the state for the first few years of his rule until her death on 5 February 1023 C.E.
Queen Arwa al-Sayyida al-Hurra (d. 1138 C.E.)
During the Fatimid Imam-Caliph al-Mustansir bi’llah’s (d. 1094 C.E.) 58-year rule, a powerful woman rose through the ranks to wield significant influence in the corridors of Fatimid power.Sayyida Arwa bint Ahmad al-Sulayhi, also known as al-Sayyida al-Hurra, the Noble Lady, and al-Malika, the Queen of Yemen, was a significant figure in Ismaili history, having positions of power till her death in 1138 C.E. Additionally, her influence came once again to the fore in the immediate aftermath of theImamal-Mustansir’s death and ensuing crisis of succession amongst his sons.
History records that the Sulayhid dynasty emerged in Yemen during the Fatimid period. Prior to the inception of Fatimid rule in 909 C.E., its missionary activity, the岹‘wt al-hadiya, rightly-guiding summons, had established a stronghold in Yemen. Under the Imam-Caliph al-Mustansir, leadership was vested in the岹‘iAli bin Muhammad al-Sulayhi (d. 1067 C.E.), a chieftain of the influentialBanu Hamdan, after whom the dynasty took its name. On his death, his son Ahmad al-Mukarram (d. 1084 C.E.) succeeded him. It was in the latter years of Ahmad’s reign when he fell ill, that his wife, Sayyida Arwa effectively held the reins of power.
The esteem in which she was held can be seen in her appointment by theImamas thehujjaof Yemen, a rank which, in the Fatimid hierarchy of religious leadership, was second only to that of theImamhimself. Al-Mustansir also “charged her with the affairs of the岹‘win western India… around 460/1067, Yamani daʿis were despatched to Gujarat under the close supervision of theSulayhidsAn Ismaili dynasty in Yemen (1038-1138).. These daʿis founded a new Ismaili community in Gujarat which in time grew into the present TayyibiBohracommunity.”3
On the death of al-Mustansir however, conflicting historical accounts can be found surrounding the events that followed. The literary heritage of the communities who would come to follow two different sons of theImampresent differing narratives. The followers of Nizar b. al-Mustansir (d. 1095 C.E.), today known as the Nizari Ismailis, followers ofHis Highness theAga Khanas the 49th hereditaryImamin direct descent from the Prophet, upheld Nizar’s rights to succession as the originally designated heir who had been nominated by his father by way ofnass, explicit designation. According to theNizaristherefore, his designation as the next Ismaili Imam-Caliph was final “with the irrevocability of thenassa central tenet of Shiʿi Ismaili doctrine.”4
On the other hand, those who accepted the claims of Nizar’s younger half-brother, Abu’l-Qasim Ahmad to the Fatimid throne, became known as the Musta‘alis, after his regnal title al-Mustaʿli bi’llah (the one Elevated by God)5. “The Musta‘lian Ismailis split into [two] branches on the assassination of al-Musta‘li’s son and successor al-Amir in 1130.”6At this point, “the Musta‘lian community of Sulayhid Yemen recognised theimamateof al-Amir’s infant son al-Tayyib and became known as theTayyibiyya.”7It was to this lineage of Imam-Caliphs that Sayyida Arwa bint Sulayhi, pledged her allegiance and support.
Bibi Sarkara Maryam Khatoon (d. c. 1832 C.E.)
In the modern period of Nizari Ismaili history, sometimes known as the period of the “Aga Khans”, we see the power and influence of women once more, this time in the figure of oneBibiSarkara Maryam Khatoon, also known as ‘Mata Salamat’, the title, meaning ‘Mother of Peace’. She was the wife of the 45th IsmailiImam, Shah Khalil Allah (d. 1817 C.E.) and mother of the 46thImam, Hasan Ali Shah,Aga KhanI (d. 1881 C.E.).
Since the split of theFatimidsinto theTayyibis, who took control of the line of Imam-Caliphs in Egypt in 1094 C.E. and the Nizari Ismaili Imams and their followers, who also claimed that legacy, the latter sought refuge in the fortress ofAlamutand other mountain fortresses in Iran. For close to 700 years – at times undertaqiyyaPrecautionary dissimulation of one’s religious beliefs, especially in time of persecution or danger, a practice especially adopted by the Shi’i Muslims.(precautionary dissimulation) and at others, more openly forging relations with the rulers of Persia – 26 of the 49 Ismaili Imams resided in Persia. In approaching the end of the 18th century, a shift was underway. In 1817 C.E., the 45thImam, Shah Khalil Allah “lost his life [when] a mob attacked the imam’s house. In the ensuing uproar, Shah Khalil Allah and several of his followers… were murdered, and the imam’s house was plundered.”8
At this critical juncture, it was Mata Salamat, the wife of the murderedImamand mother of the 46thImam, Hasan Ali Shah, then aged 13 years, who confidently went to the court of the ruling Qajar dynasty in Tehran, to seek justice for her husband and son. It was as a result of her petition that the Qajar monarch, Fath Ali Shah, brought the Imam’s killers to justice. In addition to this, Mata Salamat secured land holdings for her son in Mahallat to ensure that the family was provided for and that the young Imam’s rights were preserved. The monarch also offered his daughter, Sarv-i Jahan Khanum’s hand in marriage to the 46thImam. It was at this point also that the title of “Aga Khan”, meaning ‘Lord’ and ‘Master’ was bestowed upon the youngImam. To this day, the title has remained hereditary amongst the descendants ofImamHasan Ali Shah. The Diamond Jubilee celebrations in 2017 of the 49th IsmailiImam,Shah Karim al-Husayni, His Highness theAga KhanIV (b. 1936 C.E.) also marked 200 years since the titleAga Khanhad been bestowed on the 46thImamin 1817.
During the 64-year-longImamatof her son,ImamHasan Ali Shah, he bestowed upon her the esteemed title ofPirand sent her to India to settle disputes within the community. It is recorded that she also delivered many sermons in theJamatAssembly or religious congregation; also a term used by the Nizari Ismailis for their individual communities., facilitating its religious formation and development.PirMata Salamat thus embodied, like many women in the Ismaili MuslimJamattoday, the principles of strong female leadership, both in the community’s social as well as spiritual and religious growth and upliftment. She died in Kutch, India in 1851.
Sayyida Imam Begum (d. c. 1866 C.E.)
During the time of the 46th Nizari IsmailiImam, Hasan Ali Shah,Aga KhanI (d. 1881 C.E.), there emerged a literary composer of devotional poems in the South Asian Ismaili community, known as SayyidaImamBegum, who is recognised as one of the most well-known female composers of a genre of spiritual and devotional poems known asginans.
Historiographical traditions within the Ismaili community attribute the composition of theseԲԲto a series of Nizari Ismaili daʿis, missionary-preachers, known as Pirs and Sayyids, who are believed to have been designated by the Ismaili Imams from as early as the 11th and 12th centuries with the mission of propagating the teachings of “Satpanth” or “True Path” in the Indian Subcontinent. Through their devotional compositions, the Pirs and Sayyids sought to highlight the significance of accepting the authority of the living IsmailiImam.
As explained by various authors, theԲԲare “powerful in imagery and symbolism drawn from the cultural milieu of the Indian Subcontinent.”9Rooted in multiple movements and discourses within the Subcontinent at the time, theԲԲencompassed a wide variety of themes, many of which can be found in the compositions of SayyidaImamBegum who was “the last of theԲcomposers and the only female figure in the Tradition.”10History records that she spent most of her life in or near Bombay, was an accomplished player ofԲ(the fiddle) and “used to compose and singԲԲto theᲹ‘aas part of her duties to propagate the岹‘w.”11
According to one scholar, SayyidaImamBegum composed a “small number ofҾԲԲof great beauty, especially notable for their imploring tenderness and meditative intimacy.”12Focusing on these themes of love, devotion and a desirous yearning for union with the beloved, SayyidaImamBegum’sԲԲcontinue to be recited today throughout South Asian Nizari Ismaili communities today. She passed away in Karachi sometime around 1866 C.E.
Endnotes
- Jiwa, S.TheFatimids2: Rule from Egypt(I.B. Tauris in association with the Institute of Ismaili Studies, 2023), p. 58.
- Cortese, D. and Calderini, S.(Edinburgh University Press, 2006), p. 117.
- Daftary, F.Ismaili in Medieval Muslim Societies(I.B. Tauris in association with the Institute of Ismaili Studies, 2005), p. 80.
- Jiwa, S.TheFatimids2: Rule from Egypt(I.B. Tauris in association with the Institute of Ismaili Studies, 2023), p. 155.
- Jiwa, S.TheFatimids2: Rule from Egypt(I.B. Tauris in association with the Institute of Ismaili Studies, 2023), p. 154.
- Daftary, F.Ismaili History and Intellectual Traditions(Routledge, 2018), p. 29
- Daftary, F.Ismaili History and Intellectual Traditions(Routledge, 2018), p. 30
- Daftary, F.The Ismailis. Their History and Doctrines.Second Edition (Cambridge University Press, 2007), p. 463.
- Gillani, K.Middle East Studies Association Bulletin, Vol. 38, No. 2 (2004): 175-176.
- Nanji, A.(Caravan Books, 1978), p. 94.
- Nanji, A.The Nizari Ismaili Tradition in the Indo-Pakistan Subcontinent(Caravan Books, 1978), p. 94.
- Esmail, A.A Scent of Sandalwood.Indo-Ismaili Religious Lyrics (Ginans) (Curzon Press, 2002), p. 13.
Image: an illustration fromMaqāmāt al-Ḥarīrī.Public domain.
Pabani, Nadim. “Women Who Have Impacted Ismaili History”Lifelong Learning, 51Թ, 13 March 2024, /learning-centre/scholarly-contributions/lifelong-learning-articles/women-in-ismaili-history/
Pabani, Nadim. (2024, March 13) Women Who Have Impacted Ismaili History.Lifelong Learning./learning-centre/scholarly-contributions/lifelong-learning-articles/women-in-ismaili-history/
Pabani, Nadim. “Women Who Have Impacted Ismaili History”Lifelong Learning(blog), 51Թ, March 13, 2024. /learning-centre/scholarly-contributions/lifelong-learning-articles/women-in-ismaili-history/.
Pabani, Nadim. 2024. “Women Who Have Impacted Ismaili History”Lifelong Learning(blog), 51Թ, March 13. /learning-centre/scholarly-contributions/lifelong-learning-articles/women-in-ismaili-history/.
